I. Nature of Science

Science actively acquires information about the world in a specific manner. Scientists investigate natural phenomena with skills drawn from many disciplines of science, math and technology. They develop logical explanations based on observation and experimentation.

1. One of the essential components of higher order thinking is the ability to think about a whole in terms of its parts and, alternatively, about parts in terms of how they relate to one another and the whole. Understanding systems is fundamental to being able to rationally apply scientific knowledge.
2. Scientists assume that the universe is a vast single system in which the basic rules are the same everywhere. Scientists operate on the belief that the rules can be discovered by careful, systematic study.
3. Scientific knowledge is subject to modification as new information challenges prevailing theories and as a new theory leads to looking at old observations in a new way. Testing, revising, and occasional discarding of theories, new and old, never ends. This on-going process leads to an increasingly better understanding of how things work in the world.
4. Scientific disciplines have been created by humans for organization of information. Many problems are studied by scientists using information and skills from many of these disciplines.
5. Interpretation of scientific information can be influenced by personal, societal, and cultural beliefs. (back to top)

II. Development of Scientific Thought

Science is a human intellectual activity that crosses time and culture.

1. The use of historical references clarifies different aspects of scientific inquiry, the human aspects of science and the role that science has played in the development of diverse cultures.
2. Some scientific knowledge is very old and yet is still applicable today.
3. The human ability to shape the future comes from a capacity for generating knowledge, developing new technologies, and for communicating ideas to others. (back to top)

III. Scientific Inquiry

A. Critical Thinking

The scientific method requires rules, procedures and critical thinking skills.

1. Notice and criticize the reasoning in arguments in which
   1. a. fact and opinion are intermingled or the conclusions do not follow logically from the evidence given,
      b. an analogy is not appropriate,
      c. no mention is made of whether the control groups are very much like the experimental group
      d. all members of a group (such as teenagers or chemists) are implied to have nearly identical characteristics that differ from those of other groups,
      e. credibility of the source is not established,
      f. samples are small, biased, or lack controls,
      g. or, the faulty, incomplete, or misleading use of numbers is employed.
2. Be aware that there may be more than one good way to interpret a given set of findings.
3. Know that often different explanations can be given for the same evidence, and it is not always possible to tell which one is correct.
4. In evaluating a claim, consider contradictory data a s well as data which supports the claim.
5. What people expect to observe often affects what they actually do observe. Strong beliefs about what should happen in particular circumstances can prevent them from detecting other results. Scientists should be aware of this danger and take steps to avoid it when designing investigations and examining data.
6. In the short run, new ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas in science often encounter vigorous criticism. In the long run, theories are judged by how they fit with other theories, the range of observations they explain, how well they explain observations, and how effective they are in predicting new findings.
7. Scientific discoveries are sometimes made unexpectedly, even by accident. But knowledge and creative insight are usually required to recognize the meaning of the unexpected.
8. Scientific methodology requires a general attitude at open-mindedness, a willingness to observe and record data, an ability to see how data fits with prior knowledge and models, a willingness to reject prior ideas if inconsistent with observed data and an ability to develop generalizations that are consistent with observed data. (back to top)

B. Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process people use to understand and predict natural phenomena.

1. Good observations and careful experimentation are fundamental to the scientific process. Equally important are the use of logical reasoning and the application of imagination in formulating questions, devising hypotheses, suggesting experimental approaches and making inferences using collected evidence.
2. When experimentation is not possible for practical or ethical reasons, people try to observe as wide a range of natural occurrences as possible to be able to discern patterns.
3. In addition to observation and experimentation, relevant evidence may be located in reference books, back issues of newspapers and magazines, compact disks, and computer databases, e.g. on-line services.
4. In deciding whether or not a hypothesis is supported, people collect and analyze data. These hypotheses are valuable even if they are unsupported by data.
5. Selection of appropriate measuring instruments and computer technologies is important. Instruments are used to capture information, make direct measurements, and choose appropriate units for reporting various magnitudes.
6. Data can be organized in tables, graphs and flow charts to identify the relationships among the data.
7. Possible effects of experimental errors need to be considered in data analysis.
8. The ability to write clear, step-by-step instructions for conducting investigations, operating a piece of equipment properly and safely, or following a procedure is an essential skill in scientific inquiry.
9. Students will understand good experimental design, identify independent and dependent variables and recognize other variables to be held constant.
10. Measurements contain a certain degree of uncertainty. The precision of the measurement should be reported and considered in evaluating results.
11. Modeling and theories are useful methods to explain phenomena, but are limited based on assumptions. (back to top)

C. Ethics of Scientific Inquiry

Science has the obligation to use its tools of inquiry in an ethical fashion.

1. Honest, clear and accurate records are fundamental to good science.
2. Curiosity, honesty, openness, and skepticism are highly regarded in science. Students should know how these qualities are incorporated into the way science is carried out, exhibit these traits in their own lives and value them in others.
3. In research involving human subjects, the ethics of science require that potential subjects be fully informed about the risks and benefits associated with the research and of their right to refuse to participate. Science ethics also demand that scientists must not knowingly subject coworkers, students, the neighborhood, or the community to health or property risks without their prior knowledge and consent. Because animals cannot make informed choices, special care must be taken in using them in scientific research.
4. When violations of scientific ethical traditions are discovered, they are strongly condemned by the scientific community. (back to top)

IV. Science, Technology, and Society

Technology is the application of scientific principles. Science, technology, society and the environment are interrelated with many possibilities for ways that they may affect each other.

1. Technology has strongly influenced the course of history and continues to do so.
2. Technological problems often create a demand for new scientific knowledge, and new technologies make it possible for scientists to extend their research in new ways or to undertake entirely new lines of research. The very availability of new technology itself often sparks scientific advances.
3. Technology is essential to science for many purposes such as: access to outer space and other remote locations, sample collection and treatment, measurement, data collection and storage, computation, and communication of information.
4. Technology cannot always provide successful solutions for problems or fulfill every human need.
5. Societies influence what aspects of technology are developed and how these are used. People control technology (as well as science) and are responsible for its effects.
6. Rarely are technology issues simple and one-sided. Relevant facts alone, even when known and available, usually do not settle matters entirely in favor of one side or another. That is because the contending groups may have different values and priorities.
7. People who research and develop technology need to consider human values, limitations and societal/physical constraints.
8. All technologies have effects other than those intended by the design, some of which may have been predictable and some not. Risk analysis is used to minimize the likelihood of unwanted side effects of a new technology. The public perception of risk may depend, however, on psychological factors as well as scientific ones.
9. Some issues cannot be examined usefully in a scientific way. Among them are matters that by their nature cannot be tested objectively and those that are essentially matters of morality. (back to top)

ASD Secondary Science